collaboration with local companies or research institutes (25). For instance, the baculoviruses against key lepidopteran vegetable pests in Thailand (Spodoptera exigua, S. litura, and Helicoverpa armigera) are currently mass-produced by the research institute BIOTEC and have evolved to high quality products. Yet, market penetration is still limited due to stiff competition with synthetic pesticides and a still limited commercial distribution system. This example outlines the importance of approaching development and commercialisation of BCA from a demand-driven perspective, which should engage the private sector in the early phase of development. These include insects and mites that are most commonly mass-reared before release as inundative/augmentative biological control agents. Other modes of deployment include conservation control (using native predators and parasitoids) and ‘classical’ biological control (introductions of natural enemies, often from the centre of origin of an invasive pest) (39). Only in the latter approach is regulation required: with successful introductions depending on extensive preliminary studies (that require up to 10 years) to gain a comprehensive understanding of the biology and ecology of the pest and natural enemy complex. Analyses are made of the environments from which they originate and have subsequently colonised, or into which they would be released. Concern about the risk which introduced biological control agents might pose to natural, non-agricultural ecosystems did not become a major issue until recently. However, the most successful ‘classical’ biocontrol campaigns have had among the highest cost–benefit ratios of any pest management practice. 21 2.2 Macrobial agents Examples of species used in Southeast Asia in the two categories are: • In Malaysia, Trichogramma sp. was produced locally in 1995 to control sugar cane borer (Diatraea saccharalis) and Diadegma semiclausum was used against Plutella xylostella on crucifers in organic farms (78). • In Thailand and Indonesia, an outbreak of Heteropsylla cubana (Homoptera: Psyllidae) was controlled by 2 species of predators and 1 species of parasitoid. The predators were Curinus coeruleus and Olla abodominalis, introduced from Hawaii and Saipan. The parasitoid, Psyllaephagus yaseeni (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), was also introduced from Hawaii to Thailand for the same purpose, later it was introduced from Thailand to Indonesia (73) (74). • Locally produced Cotesia flavipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) was used to control sugarcane stem borers (75) and Diadegma semiclausum was used against diamondback moth or Plutella xylostella in Thailand. • A recent example (2012) includes the successful release of the wasp Anagyrus lopezi introduced from Benin to control the pink cassava mealybug Phenacossus manihoti in Thailand (76). Biological control reduced the infested area from 170,000 ha in 2010 to 64,000 ha in 2011, and just 3,300 ha in 2012 (Rojanaridpiched et al. 2012 cited in (40)). ASEAN Member States follow FAO guidelines: usually restricting regulatory controls only to the import of alien organisms for biocontrol. The issue of regulation of macrobials was strongly related to cross-border trade. In the case of a native species, augmentation in the same country is not usually a problem; but what about inter-island supply of macrobials? Should a species be regarded foreign in a
Implementing Biological Control Agents in the ASEAN Region
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