impact on the distribution and use of BCA. The role of the private sector in production and distribution of BCA is also emphasised. 1.1.1 Biological Control Agents (BCA): categories and terminology The term ‘biopesticide’, a contraction of biological pesticide, has come to mean many things, even though the term has historically been associated with biological control - and by implication - the manipulation of living organisms. In other regions, regulatory positions have been influenced by public perceptions, thus: • in the EU, biopesticides have been defined as “a form of pesticide based on micro-organisms 12 or natural products” (10) • the US EPA states that they “include naturally occurring substances that control pests (biochemical pesticides), micro-organisms that control pests (microbial pesticides), and pesticidal substances produced by plants containing added genetic material (plant-incorporated protectants) or PIPs” (11). The US terminology therefore includes three categories, including ‘biochemical pesticides’ which are characterised by a non-toxic mode of action that may affect the growth and development of a pest, its ability to reproduce, or pest ecology. They also may have an impact on the growth and development of treated plants including their post-harvest physiology. They include (i) plant growth regulators, (ii) insect growth regulators, (iii) organic acids, (iv) plant extracts, (v) pheromones, (vi) minerals/other substances. Given that the toxophores of several chemical pesticide modes of action are of natural origin (e.g. pyrethroids from pyrethrum, diamides from ryanodine) and major agrochemical companies are promoting naturally occurring fermentation products (e.g. avermectins, spinosyns), many products lie in a substantial ‘grey area’ between truly biological and chemical control agents. There are also legal implications to the terminology used: ‘growth regulators’, ‘biostimulants’, ’plant strengtheners’, etc., which often carry less onerous (or no) regulatory burden in comparison with products described anywhere as ‘(bio)pesticides’. The arguments used are often specious, but may have enormous cost implications. Decisions on what to include or exclude, of course matter for national Regulatory Authorities, but the authors of these guidelines recommend that decisions are made on a scientific evidence basis. These are often difficult decisions involving a pay-off between efficacy and environmental impact. For example, the decision to exclude certain fermentation products in the 5th edition of the Manual of Biocontrol Agents (12) has not been taken lightly and based, at least in part, by studies on non-target organisms published in referred journals (13) (14). In order to avoid the confusion around the term ‘biopesticide’ and accommodate living as well as non-living active agents and ingredients, the ‘ASEAN Biocontrol for Sustainable Agrifood Systems’ Project and other agencies3 classify BCA into four product categories: • Microbial control agents (MCA or microbials), 3 E.g. OECD, International Biocontrol Manufacturers’ Association (IBMA): now harmonised with the British Crop Production Council (BCPC) Manual of Biocontrol Agents
Implementing Biological Control Agents in the ASEAN Region
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